C code loop performance

Question

I have a multiply-add kernel inside my application and I want to increase its performance.

I use an Intel Core i7-960 (3.2 GHz clock) and have already manually implemented the kernel using SSE intrinsics as follows:

 for(int i=0; i<iterations; i+=4) {
    y1 = _mm_set_ss(output[i]);
    y2 = _mm_set_ss(output[i+1]);
    y3 = _mm_set_ss(output[i+2]);
    y4 = _mm_set_ss(output[i+3]);

    for(k=0; k<ksize; k++){
        for(l=0; l<ksize; l++){
            w  = _mm_set_ss(weight[i+k+l]);

            x1 = _mm_set_ss(input[i+k+l]);
            y1 = _mm_add_ss(y1,_mm_mul_ss(w,x1));
            …
            x4 = _mm_set_ss(input[i+k+l+3]);
            y4 = _mm_add_ss(y4,_mm_mul_ss(w,x4));
        }
    }
    _mm_store_ss(&output[i],y1);
    _mm_store_ss(&output[i+1],y2);
    _mm_store_ss(&output[i+2],y3);
    _mm_store_ss(&output[i+3],y4);
 }

I know I can use packed fp vectors to increase the performance and I already did so succesfully, but I want to know why the single scalar code isn't able to meet the processor's peak performance.

The performance of this kernel on my machine is ~1.6 FP operations per cycle, while the maximum would be 2 FP operations per cycle (since FP add + FP mul can be executed in parallel).

If I'm correct from studying the generated assembly code, the ideal schedule would look like follows, where the mov instruction takes 3 cycles, the switch latency from the load domain to the FP domain for the dependent instructions takes 2 cycles, the FP multiply takes 4 cycles and the FP add takes 3 cycles. (Note that the dependence from the multiply -> add doesn't incur any switch latency because the operations belong to the same domain).

According to the measured performance (~80% of the maximum theoretical performance) there is an overhead of ~3 instructions per 8 cycles.

I am trying to either:

• get rid of this overhead, or
• explain where it comes from

Of course there is the problem with cache misses & data misalignment which can increase the latency of the move instructions, but are there any other factors that could play a role here? Like register read stalls or something?

I hope my problem is clear, thanks in advance for your responses!

---

Update: The assembly of the inner-loop looks as follows:

...
Block 21: 
  movssl  (%rsi,%rdi,4), %xmm4 
  movssl  (%rcx,%rdi,4), %xmm0 
  movssl  0x4(%rcx,%rdi,4), %xmm1 
  movssl  0x8(%rcx,%rdi,4), %xmm2 
  movssl  0xc(%rcx,%rdi,4), %xmm3 
  inc %rdi 
  mulss %xmm4, %xmm0 
  cmp $0x32, %rdi 
  mulss %xmm4, %xmm1 
  mulss %xmm4, %xmm2 
  mulss %xmm3, %xmm4 
  addss %xmm0, %xmm5 
  addss %xmm1, %xmm6 
  addss %xmm2, %xmm7 
  addss %xmm4, %xmm8 
  jl 0x401b52 <Block 21> 
...

Answer 1

I noticed in the comments that:

• The loop takes 5 cycles to execute.
• It's "supposed" to take 4 cycles. (since there's 4 adds and 4 mulitplies)

However, your assembly shows 5 SSE movssl instructions. According to Agner Fog's tables all floating-point SSE move instructions are at least 1 inst/cycle reciprocal throughput for Nehalem.

Since you have 5 of them, you can't do better than 5 cycles/iteration.

---

So in order to get to peak performance, you need to reduce the # of loads that you have. How you can do that I can't see immediately this particular case - but it might be possible.

One common approach is to use tiling. Where you add nesting levels to improve locality. Although it's used mostly for improving cache access, it can also be used in registers to reduce the # of load/stores that are needed.

Ultimately, your goal is to reduce the number of loads to be less than the numbers of add/muls. So this might be the way to go.