Issue with Hierarchical Lucas-Kanade method on Optical Flow

Question

Issue with Hierarchical Lucas-Kanade method on optical flow

I am implementing the hierarchical Lucas-Kanade method in Python based on this tutorial. However, when applying the method to a rotating sphere, I am encountering unexpected results.

• The data can be found here.

Algorithm explained

The overall structure of the algorithm is explained below. Notice that the equations in this tutorial are using the convention where the top-left corner is (0, 0) and the bottom-right corner is (width-1, height-1), while the implementation provided here swaps the x and y axes. In other words, the coordinate for the top-left corner is (0, 0) and the bottom-right corner is (height-1, width-1).

Basic Lucas-Kanade

Incorporating equations 19, 20, 23, 29, and 28, the basic Lucas-Kanade method is implemented as follows:

def lucas_kanade(img1, img2):
    img1 = np.copy(img1).astype(np.float32)
    img2 = np.copy(img2).astype(np.float32)

    # Change the window size based on the image's size due to downsampling.
    window_size = min(max(3, min(img1.shape[:2]) / 6), 31)
    window_size = int(2 * (window_size // 2) + 1)
    print("window size: ", window_size)

    # Compute image gradients
    Ix = np.zeros(img1.shape, dtype=np.float32)
    Iy = np.zeros(img1.shape, dtype=np.float32)
    Ix[1:-1, 1:-1] = (img1[1:-1, 2:] - img1[1:-1, :-2]) / 2  # pixels on boundry are 0.
    Iy[1:-1, 1:-1] = (img1[2:, 1:-1] - img1[:-2, 1:-1]) / 2

    # Compute temporal gradient
    It = np.zeros(img1.shape, dtype=np.float32)
    It = img1 - img2

    # Define a (window_size, window_size) kernel for the convolution
    kernel = np.ones((window_size, window_size), dtype=np.float32)
    # kernel = create_gaussian_kernel(window_size, sigma=1)

    # Use convolution to calculate the sum of the window for each pixel
    Ix2 = convolve2d(Ix**2, kernel, mode="same", boundary="fill", fillvalue=0)
    Iy2 = convolve2d(Iy**2, kernel, mode="same", boundary="fill", fillvalue=0)
    Ixy = convolve2d(Ix * Iy, kernel, mode="same", boundary="fill", fillvalue=0)
    Ixt = convolve2d(Ix * It, kernel, mode="same", boundary="fill", fillvalue=0)
    Iyt = convolve2d(Iy * It, kernel, mode="same", boundary="fill", fillvalue=0)

    # Compute optical flow parameters
    det = Ix2 * Iy2 - Ixy**2
    # Avoid division by zero
    u = np.where((det > 1e-6), (Iy2 * Ixt - Ixy * Iyt) / det, 0)
    v = np.where((det > 1e-6), (Ix2 * Iyt - Ixy * Ixt) / det, 0)

    optical_flow = np.stack((u, v), axis=2)
    return optical_flow.astype(np.float32)

Generate Gaussian Pyramid

The Gaussian pyramid is generated as follow.

def gen_gaussian_pyramid(im, max_level):
    # Return `max_level+1` arrays.
    gauss_pyr = [im]
    for i in range(max_level):
        gauss_pyr.append(cv2.pyrDown(gauss_pyr[-1]))
    return gauss_pyr

Upsample the flow

The processing is conducted from the roughest image to the finest image in the pyramid. Thus, we also need to upsample the flow.

def expand(img, dst_size, interpolation=None):
    # Increase dimension.
    height, width = dst_size[:2]
    return cv2.GaussianBlur(
        cv2.resize(  # dim: (width, height)
            img, (width, height), interpolation=interpolation or cv2.INTER_LINEAR
        ),
        (5, 5),
        0,
    )

Warp the image by the flow in previous level

In the equation 12, the right image needs to be shifted based on the number of pixels in the previous loop. I choose to use opencv.remap function to warp the left image to be aligned with the right image.

def remap(a, flow):
    height, width = flow.shape[:2]

    # Create a grid of coordinates using np.meshgrid
    y, x = np.meshgrid(np.arange(height), np.arange(width), indexing="ij")

    # Create flow_map by adding the flow vectors
    flow_map = np.column_stack( # NOTE: minus sign on flow
        (x.flatten() + -flow[:, :, 0].flatten(), y.flatten() + -flow[:, :, 1].flatten())
    )

    # Reshape flow_map to match the original image dimensions
    flow_map = flow_map.reshape((height, width, 2))

    # Ensure flow_map values are within the valid range
    flow_map[:, :, 0] = np.clip(flow_map[:, :, 0], 0, width - 1)
    flow_map[:, :, 1] = np.clip(flow_map[:, :, 1], 0, height - 1)

    # Convert flow_map to float32
    flow_map = flow_map.astype(np.float32)

    # Use cv2.remap for remapping
    warped = cv2.remap(a, flow_map, None, cv2.INTER_LINEAR)

    return warped

Putting it all together

After defining all the basics, we can put them all together. Here, g_L and d_L are the variable in equation 7.

def hierarchical_lucas_kanade(im1, im2, max_level):  # max_level = 4
    gauss_pyr_1 = gen_gaussian_pyramid(im1, max_level)  # from finest to roughest
    gauss_pyr_2 = gen_gaussian_pyramid(im2, max_level)  # from finest to roughest

    g_L = [0 for _ in range(max_level + 1)]  # Every slot will be (h, w, 2) array.
    d_L = [0 for _ in range(max_level + 1)]  # Every slot will be (h, w, 2) array.
    assert len(g_L) == 5  # 4 + 1 (base)
    # Initialzie g_L[0] as (h, w, 2) zeros array
    g_L[max_level] = np.zeros(gauss_pyr_1[-1].shape[:2] + (2,)).astype(np.float32)

    for level in range(max_level, -1, -1):  # 4, 3, 2, 1, 0
        # Warp image 1 by previous flow.
        warped = remap(gauss_pyr_1[level], g_L[level])
        # Run Lucas-Kanade on warped image and right image.
        d_L[level] = lucas_kanade(warped, gauss_pyr_2[level])

        # Expand/Upsample the flow so that the dimension can match the finer result.
        g_L[level - 1] = 2.0 * expand(
            g_L[level] + d_L[level],
            gauss_pyr_2[level - 1].shape[:2] + (2,),
            interpolation=cv2.INTER_LINEAR,
        )
    return g_L[0] + d_L[0]

Visualization

After downloading the data, you can run it with the code:

sphere_seq = []
for fname in natsorted(Path("./input/sphere/").rglob("*.ppm")):
    sphere_seq.append(cv2.imread(str(fname), cv2.IMREAD_GRAYSCALE))

flows = []
for i in range(len(sphere_seq) - 1):
    flows.append(hierarchical_lucas_kanade(sphere_seq[i], sphere_seq[i + 1], max_level=4))
    show_flow(sphere_seq[i], flows[i], f"./output/sphere/flow-{i}.png")

The result looks like below:

Specific Question:

There are several problems in the result:

• 1. It looks like the flow's x direction is correct but the y direction is not. It could be my my visulization code is wrong. Here is the code:

      def show_flow(img, flow, filename=None):
          x = np.arange(0, img.shape[1], 1)
          y = np.arange(0, img.shape[0], 1)
          x, y = np.meshgrid(x, y)
          plt.figure(figsize=(10, 10))
          fig = plt.imshow(img, cmap="gray", interpolation="bicubic")
          plt.axis("off")
          fig.axes.get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
          fig.axes.get_yaxis().set_visible(False)
     
          num_points_per_axis = 32
          step = int(img.shape[0] / num_points_per_axis)
          plt.quiver(
              x[::step, ::step],
              y[::step, ::step],  # reverse order?
              flow[::step, ::step, 0],
              flow[::step, ::step, 1],  # reverse sign?
              color="r",
              pivot="tail",
              headwidth=2,
              headlength=3,
          )
          if filename is not None:
              plt.savefig(filename, bbox_inches="tight", pad_inches=0)
     

• 2. There are non-zero flow on the stationary pixels.

Any insights or suggestions on resolving this issue would be greatly appreciated. Thank you!

Answer 1

Optical Flow Analysis using the Lucas-Kanade Method

Simple Lucas-Kanade (without hierarchical approach)

Here's a program based off of the code you provide. Below is just one example of the kind of parameter optimization which could be experimented with to fine-tune the accuracy of the optical flow analysis results. The principal changes introduced were:

1. As mentioned, fine-tuning of the handful of parameters (defined by all caps variable names in the code below; perhaps the most important is the "minimum window size" which determines the size of the local region the Lucas-Kanade algorithm analyzes for determining flow)
2. Implementation of a flow magnitude threshold/cutoff to eliminate the plotted quivers (arrows) on stationary regions of pixels
3. Correction of the y-direction flow values by reversing the sign of the vector

import cv2
import imageio
import itertools as itl
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

from natsort import natsorted
from pathlib import Path

INPUT_DATA = # [path to input directory containing .ppm image files]

# Variable analysis parameters:
MIN_WIN_SIZE = [6, 7, 8]
NUM_AXIS_PTS = [32, 50, 74]
ARROW_SCALE = [50]
FLOW_CUTOFF = [0.25]

combinations = [
    *itl.product(MIN_WIN_SIZE, NUM_AXIS_PTS, ARROW_SCALE, FLOW_CUTOFF)
]
print(len(combinations))

for MIN_WIN_SIZE, NUM_AXIS_PTS, ARROW_SCALE, FLOW_CUTOFF in combinations:

    def lucas_kanade(img1, img2):
        """Compute optical flow using Lucas-Kanade method.
        
        Args:
            img1 (numpy.ndarray): First input image.
            img2 (numpy.ndarray): Second input image.
        
        Returns:
            numpy.ndarray: Computed optical flow.
        """
        img1 = np.copy(img1).astype(np.float32)
        img2 = np.copy(img2).astype(np.float32)

        # Change the window size based on the image's size due to downsampling.
        window_size = min(max(3, min(img1.shape[:2]) / 6), MIN_WIN_SIZE)
        window_size = int(2 * (window_size // 2) + 1)

        # Compute image gradients
        Ix = np.zeros(img1.shape, dtype=np.float32)
        Iy = np.zeros(img1.shape, dtype=np.float32)
        Ix[1:-1, 1:-1] = (img1[1:-1, 2:] - img1[1:-1, :-2]) / 2
        Iy[1:-1, 1:-1] = (img1[2:, 1:-1] - img1[:-2, 1:-1]) / 2

        # Compute temporal gradient
        It = img1 - img2

        # Define a (window_size, window_size) kernel for the convolution
        kernel = np.ones((window_size, window_size), dtype=np.float32)

        # Use convolution to calculate the sum of the window for each pixel
        Ix2 = cv2.filter2D(Ix ** 2, -1, kernel)
        Iy2 = cv2.filter2D(Iy ** 2, -1, kernel)
        Ixy = cv2.filter2D(Ix * Iy, -1, kernel)
        Ixt = cv2.filter2D(Ix * It, -1, kernel)
        Iyt = cv2.filter2D(Iy * It, -1, kernel)

        # Compute optical flow parameters
        det = Ix2 * Iy2 - Ixy ** 2
        # Avoid division by zero and handle invalid values
        u = np.where((det > 1e-6), (Iy2 * Ixt - Ixy * Iyt) / (det + 1e-6), 0)
        v = np.where((det > 1e-6), (Ix2 * Iyt - Ixy * Ixt) / (det + 1e-6), 0)

        optical_flow = np.stack((u, v), axis=2)
        return optical_flow.astype(np.float32)

    def apply_magnitude_threshold(flow, threshold):
        """Apply magnitude thresholding to filter out small flows.
        
        Args:
            flow (numpy.ndarray): Input flow array.
            threshold (float): Magnitude threshold value.
        
        Returns:
            numpy.ndarray: Thresholded flow array.
        """
        magnitude = np.linalg.norm(
            flow, axis=-1
        )  # Compute magnitude of flow vectors
        magnitude = magnitude.reshape(
            magnitude.shape + (1,)
        )  # Reshape to match flow shape
        thresholded_flow = np.where(magnitude < threshold, 0, flow)
        return thresholded_flow

    def show_flow(img, flow, filename=None):
        """Visualize the flow on the input image.
        
        Args:
            img (numpy.ndarray): Input image.
            flow (numpy.ndarray): Flow array to be visualized.
            filename (str, optional): Output filename to save the visualization.
        """
        x = np.arange(0, img.shape[1], 1)
        y = np.arange(0, img.shape[0], 1)
        x, y = np.meshgrid(x, y)
        plt.figure(figsize=(10, 10))
        fig = plt.imshow(img, cmap="gray", interpolation="bicubic")
        plt.axis("off")
        fig.axes.get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
        fig.axes.get_yaxis().set_visible(False)

        num_points_per_axis = NUM_AXIS_PTS
        step = int(img.shape[0] / num_points_per_axis)
        print(step)
        scale_factor = (
            ARROW_SCALE  # Adjust arrow scale factor for better visualization
        )

        plt.quiver(
            x[::step, ::step],
            y[::step, ::step],
            flow[::step, ::step, 0],
            -flow[::step, ::step, 1],  # Reverse sign for correct direction
            color="r",
            pivot="tail",
            headwidth=2,
            headlength=3,
            scale=scale_factor,
        )
        if filename is not None:
            plt.savefig(filename, bbox_inches="tight", pad_inches=0)

    # Read sphere data (PPM images)
    sphere_seq = []
    for fname in natsorted(Path(INPUT_DATA).rglob("*.ppm")):
        sphere_seq.append(cv2.imread(str(fname), cv2.IMREAD_GRAYSCALE))

    # Compute optical flow and visualize
    flows = []
    for i in range(len(sphere_seq) - 1):
        # Compute optical flow using Lucas-Kanade method
        flow = lucas_kanade(sphere_seq[i], sphere_seq[i + 1])

        # Apply magnitude thresholding to filter out small flows
        thresholded_flow = apply_magnitude_threshold(
            flow, threshold=FLOW_CUTOFF
        )

        # Visualize the thresholded flow
        show_flow(
            sphere_seq[i],
            thresholded_flow,
            f"{INPUT_DATA}/sphere{i:02}_thresholded.png",
        )

    # List all image files in the output folder
    image_files = sorted(Path(INPUT_DATA).glob("*.png"))

    # Create GIF animation from the image files
    with imageio.get_writer(
        f"{INPUT_DATA}/sphere_animation_MINWIN={MIN_WIN_SIZE}_NUMAXSPTS={NUM_AXIS_PTS}.gif",
        mode="I",
    ) as writer:
        for image_file in image_files:
            image = imageio.imread(str(image_file))
            writer.append_data(image)

    print("GIF animation created successfully!")

Using this approach, for example, produced results such as:

MINWIN=10 NUMAXSPTS=6:

MINWIN=9 NUMAXSPTS=50:

MINWIN=6 NUMAXSPTS=32:

MINWIN=5 NUMAXSPTS=50:

Hierarchical Lucas-Kanade method

As an update to this answer, below is a modification of the above analysis program which implements the hierarchical functions mentioned in the question and in the reference paper (e.g., pyramidal feature tracking, etc.).

"""Perform optical flow analysis using hierarchical Lucas-Kanade method and
create GIF animation from rotating sphere image sequence. """
import cv2
import imageio
import itertools as itl
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

from natsort import natsorted
from pathlib import Path

INPUT_DATA = # [path to directory containing .ppm input data files]

MAX_LEVEL = [3, 5]
NUM_AXIS_PTS = [16, 32, 64]
ARROW_SCALE = [1]
MIN_WIN_SIZE = [31]
FLOW_CUTOFF = [1e-2, 2.5e-2]

combinations = [
    *itl.product(
        MAX_LEVEL, NUM_AXIS_PTS, ARROW_SCALE, MIN_WIN_SIZE, FLOW_CUTOFF
    )
]
print(len(combinations))
print(combinations)

for (
    MAX_LEVEL,
    NUM_AXIS_PTS,
    ARROW_SCALE,
    MIN_WIN_SIZE,
    FLOW_CUTOFF,
) in combinations:

    def gen_gaussian_pyramid(im, max_level):
        """Generate Gaussian pyramid from the input image."""
        gauss_pyr = [im]
        for i in range(max_level):
            gauss_pyr.append(cv2.pyrDown(gauss_pyr[-1]))
        return gauss_pyr

    def expand(img, dst_size, interpolation=None):
        """Upsample the flow to match the dimensions of another image."""
        height, width = dst_size[:2]
        return cv2.GaussianBlur(
            cv2.resize(
                img,
                (width, height),
                interpolation=interpolation or cv2.INTER_LINEAR,
            ),
            (5, 5),
            0,
        )

    def remap(a, flow):
        """Warp the image by the flow in previous level."""
        height, width = flow.shape[:2]
        y, x = np.meshgrid(np.arange(height), np.arange(width), indexing="ij")
        flow_map = np.column_stack(
            (
                x.flatten() + -flow[:, :, 0].flatten(),
                y.flatten() + -flow[:, :, 1].flatten(),
            )
        )
        flow_map = flow_map.reshape((height, width, 2))
        flow_map[:, :, 0] = np.clip(flow_map[:, :, 0], 0, width - 1)
        flow_map[:, :, 1] = np.clip(flow_map[:, :, 1], 0, height - 1)
        flow_map = flow_map.astype(np.float32)
        warped = cv2.remap(a, flow_map, None, cv2.INTER_LINEAR)
        return warped

    def hierarchical_lucas_kanade(im1, im2, max_level):
        """Compute optical flow using hierarchical Lucas-Kanade method."""
        gauss_pyr_1 = gen_gaussian_pyramid(im1, max_level)
        gauss_pyr_2 = gen_gaussian_pyramid(im2, max_level)

        g_L = [0 for _ in range(max_level + 1)]
        d_L = [0 for _ in range(max_level + 1)]
        g_L[max_level] = np.zeros(gauss_pyr_1[-1].shape[:2] + (2,)).astype(
            np.float32
        )

        for level in range(max_level, -1, -1):
            warped = remap(gauss_pyr_1[level], g_L[level])
            d_L[level] = lucas_kanade(warped, gauss_pyr_2[level])
            g_L[level - 1] = 2.0 * expand(
                g_L[level] + d_L[level],
                gauss_pyr_2[level - 1].shape[:2] + (2,),
                interpolation=cv2.INTER_LINEAR,
            )
        return g_L[0] + d_L[0]

    def lucas_kanade(img1, img2):
        """Compute optical flow using Lucas-Kanade method."""
        img1 = np.copy(img1).astype(np.float32)
        img2 = np.copy(img2).astype(np.float32)

        window_size = MIN_WIN_SIZE
        Ix = cv2.Sobel(img1, cv2.CV_64F, 1, 0, ksize=5)
        Iy = cv2.Sobel(img1, cv2.CV_64F, 0, 1, ksize=5)
        It = img1 - img2

        Ix2 = cv2.GaussianBlur(Ix ** 2, (window_size, window_size), 0)
        Iy2 = cv2.GaussianBlur(Iy ** 2, (window_size, window_size), 0)
        Ixy = cv2.GaussianBlur(Ix * Iy, (window_size, window_size), 0)
        Ixt = cv2.GaussianBlur(Ix * It, (window_size, window_size), 0)
        Iyt = cv2.GaussianBlur(Iy * It, (window_size, window_size), 0)

        det = Ix2 * Iy2 - Ixy ** 2
        u = np.where((det > 1e-6), (Iy2 * Ixt - Ixy * Iyt) / (det + 1e-6), 0)
        v = np.where((det > 1e-6), (Ix2 * Iyt - Ixy * Ixt) / (det + 1e-6), 0)

        optical_flow = np.stack((u, v), axis=2)
        return optical_flow.astype(np.float32)

    def apply_magnitude_threshold(flow, threshold):
        """Apply magnitude thresholding to filter out small flows.
        
        Args:
            flow (numpy.ndarray): Input flow array.
            threshold (float): Magnitude threshold value.
        
        Returns:
            numpy.ndarray: Thresholded flow array.
        """
        magnitude = np.linalg.norm(
            flow, axis=-1
        )  # Compute magnitude of flow vectors
        magnitude = magnitude.reshape(
            magnitude.shape + (1,)
        )  # Reshape to match flow shape
        thresholded_flow = np.where(magnitude < threshold, 0, flow)
        return thresholded_flow

    def show_flow(img, flow, filename=None):
        """Visualize the flow on the input image."""
        x = np.arange(0, img.shape[1], 1)
        y = np.arange(0, img.shape[0], 1)
        x, y = np.meshgrid(x, y)
        plt.figure(figsize=(10, 10))
        fig = plt.imshow(img, cmap="gray", interpolation="bicubic")
        plt.axis("off")
        fig.axes.get_xaxis().set_visible(False)
        fig.axes.get_yaxis().set_visible(False)

        num_points_per_axis = NUM_AXIS_PTS
        step = int(img.shape[0] / num_points_per_axis)
        scale_factor = ARROW_SCALE

        plt.quiver(
            x[::step, ::step],
            y[::step, ::step],
            flow[::step, ::step, 0],
            -flow[::step, ::step, 1],  # Reverse sign for correct direction
            color="r",
            pivot="tail",
            headwidth=2,
            headlength=3,
            scale=scale_factor,
        )
        if filename is not None:
            plt.savefig(filename, bbox_inches="tight", pad_inches=0)

    # Read sphere data (PPM images)
    sphere_seq = []
    for fname in natsorted(Path(INPUT_DATA).rglob("*.ppm")):
        sphere_seq.append(cv2.imread(str(fname), cv2.IMREAD_GRAYSCALE))

    # Compute optical flow and visualize
    flows = []
    for i in range(len(sphere_seq) - 1):
        flow = hierarchical_lucas_kanade(
            sphere_seq[i], sphere_seq[i + 1], MAX_LEVEL
        )

        # Apply magnitude thresholding to filter out small flows
        thresholded_flow = apply_magnitude_threshold(
            flow, threshold=FLOW_CUTOFF
        )

        # Visualize the thresholded flow
        show_flow(
            sphere_seq[i], thresholded_flow, f"{INPUT_DATA}/sphere{i:02}.png",
        )

    # Create GIF animation from the image files
    image_files = sorted(Path(INPUT_DATA).glob("*.png"))
    with imageio.get_writer(
        f"{INPUT_DATA}/sphere_animation_MAXLEVEL={MAX_LEVEL}" \ 
        "_MINWINSIZE={MIN_WIN_SIZE}_NUMAXSPTS={NUM_AXIS_PTS}" \ 
        "_ARROWSCALE={ARROW_SCALE}_FLOWCUTOFF={FLOW_CUTOFF}.gif",
        mode="I",
    ) as writer:
        for image_file in image_files:
            image = imageio.imread(str(image_file))
            writer.append_data(image)

There appears to be, in both this hierarchical and the previous simpler method shown above, a tradeoff in varying specifically the "minimum window size" parameter which is proving tricky to optimize: the smaller the window size, the more accurate the detection of flow but the less accurate the assessment of the direction of the flow. And vice versa - a larger window size (e.g., MIN_WIN_SIZE=31 [Note: the value for the parameter must be odd]) results in more accurate visualization of the direction of the flow in the images, but at the cost of introducing apparent noisiness in the flow detected (e.g., flow arrows appearing outside the bounds of the rotating sphere).

Below are some representative examples selected from the more numerous combinatorial set of outputs generated by this version of the analysis (implementing the hierarchical adaptation of the Lucas-Kanade method).

MAXLEVEL=5 MINWINSIZE=25 NUMAXSPTS=16 ARROWSCALE=2

FLOWCUTOFF=0.01 (i.e., ≈None)¹

MAXLEVEL=3 MINWINSIZE=31 NUMAXSPTS=16 ARROWSCALE=1

FLOWCUTOFF=0.025 (Note: Depicted flow is [almost] all contained accurately within the sphere now, however with a concomitant loss in the sensitivity of detection (some peripheral areas are now missing flow quivers).)

MAXLEVEL=4 MINWINSIZE=25 NUMAXSPTS=50 ARROWSCALE=2

FLOWCUTOFF=0.01 (i.e., ≈None)

MAXLEVEL=4 MINWINSIZE=31 NUMAXSPTS=74 ARROWSCALE=70

FLOWCUTOFF=0.01 (i.e., ≈None)

MAXLEVEL=5 MINWINSIZE=25 NUMAXSPTS=74 ARROWSCALE=2

FLOWCUTOFF=0.01 (i.e., ≈None)

MAXLEVEL=5 MINWINSIZE=5 NUMAXSPTS=74 ARROWSCALE=2

FLOWCUTOFF=0.01 (i.e., ≈None)

---

_{¹ Note: Setting the parameter FLOW_CUTOFF=0.01 is essentially equivalent to having no threshold cutoff for the magnitudes of detected flow — all detected flow is passed through at this low-level value for the parameter.}