Consider a simple instruction like
mov RCX, RDI # 48 89 f9
The 48 is the REX prefix for x86_64. It is not an LCP. But consider adding an LCP (for alignment purposes):
.byte 0x67
mov RCX, RDI # 67 48 89 f9
67 is an address size prefix which in this case is for an instruction without addresses. This instruction also has no immediates, and it doesn't use the F7 opcode (False LCP stalls; F7 would be TEST, NOT, NEG, MUL, IMUL, DIV + IDIV). Assume that it doesn't cross a 16-byte boundary either. Those are the LCP stall cases mentioned in Intel's Optimization Reference Manual.
Would this instruction incur an LCP stall (on Skylake, Haswell, ...) ? What about two LCPs?
My daily driver is a MacBook. So I don't have access to VTune and I can't look at the ILD_STALL event. Is there any other way to know?
TL:DR: 67h is safe here on all CPUs. In 64-bit mode1, 67h can only LCP-stall with addr32 movabs load/store of the accumulator (AL/AX/EAX/RAX) from/to a moffs 32-bit absolute address (vs. the normal 64-bit absolute for that special opcode).
67h isn't length-changing with normal instructions that use a ModRM, even with a disp32 component in the addressing mode, because 32 and 64-bit address-size use identical ModRM formats. That 67h-LCP-stallable form of mov is special and doesn't use a modrm addressing mode.
(It also almost certainly won't have some other meaning in future CPUs, like being part of longer opcode the way rep is3.)
A Length Changing Prefix is when the opcode(+modrm) would imply a different length in bytes for the non-prefixes part of the instruction's machine code, if you ignored prefixes. I.e. it changes the length of the rest of the instruction. (Parallel length-finding is hard, and done separately from full decode: Later insns in a 16-byte block don't even have known start points. So this min(16-byte, 6-instruction) stage needs to look at as few bits as possible after prefixes, for the normal fast case to work. This is the stage where LCP stalls can happen.)
Usually only with an actual imm16 / imm32 opcode, e.g. 66h is length-changing in add cx, 1234, but not add cx, 12: after prefixes or in the appropriate mode, add r/m16, imm8 and add r/m32, imm8 are both opcode + modrm + imm8, 3 bytes regardless, (https://www.felixcloutier.com/x86/add). Pre-decode hardware can find the right length by just skipping prefixes, not modifying interpretation of later opcode+modrm based on what it saw, unlike when 66h means the opcode implies 2 immediate bytes instead of 4. Assemblers will always pick the imm8 encoding when possible because it's shorter (or equal length for the no-modrm add ax, imm16 special case).
(Note that REX.W=1 is length-changing for mov r64, imm64 vs. mov r32, imm32, but all hardware handles that relatively common instruction efficiently so only 66h and 67h can ever actually LCP-stall.)
SnB-family doesn't have any false2 LCP stalls for prefixes that can be length-changing for this opcode but not this this particular instruction, for either 66h or 67h. So F7 is a non-issue on SnB, unlike Core2 and Nehalem. (Earlier P6-family Intel CPUs didn't support 64-bit mode.) Atom/Silvermont don't have LCP penalties at all, nor do AMD or Via CPUs.
Agner Fog's microarch guide covers this well, and explains things clearly. Search for "length-changing prefixes". (This answer is an attempt to put those pieces together with some reminders about how x86 instruction encoding works, etc.)
Footnote 1: 67h increases length-finding difficulty more in non-64-bit modes:
In 64-bit mode, 67h changes from 64 to 32-bit address size, both of which use disp0 / 8 / 32 (0, 1, or 4 bytes of immediate displacement as part of the instruction), and which use the same ModRM + optional SIB encoding for normal addressing modes. RIP+rel32 repurposes the shorter (no SIB) encoding of 32-bit mode's two redundant ways to encode [disp32], so length decoding is unaffected. Note that REX was already designed not to be length-changing (except for mov r64, imm64), by burdening R13 and R12 in the same ways as RBP and RSP as ModRM "escape codes" to signal no base reg, or presence of a SIB byte, respectively.
In 16 and 32-bit modes, 67h switches to 32 or 16-bit address size. Not only are [x + disp32] vs. [x + disp16] different lengths after the ModRM byte (just like immediates for the operand-size prefix), but also 16-bit address-size can't signal a SIB byte. Why don't x86 16-bit addressing modes have a scale factor, while the 32-bit version has it? So the same bits in the mode and /rm fields can imply different lengths.
Footnote 2: "False" LCP stalls
This need (see footnote 1) to sometimes look differently at ModRM even to find the length is presumably why Intel CPUs before Sandybridge have "false" LCP stalls in 16/32-bit modes on 67h prefixes on any instruction with a ModRM, even when they aren't length-changing (e.g. register addressing mode). Instead of optimistically length-finding and checking somehow, a Core2/Nehalem just punts if they see addr32 + most opcodes, if they're not in 64-bit mode.
Fortunately there's basically zero reason to ever use it in 32-bit code so this mostly only matters for 16-bit code that uses 32-bit registers without switching to protected mode. Or code using 67h for padding like you're doing, except in 32-bit mode. .byte 0x67 / mov ecx, edi would be a problem for Core 2 / Nehalem. (I didn't check earlier 32-bit-only P6 family CPUs. They're a lot more obsolete than Nehalem.)
False LCP stalls for 67h never happen in 64-bit mode; as discussed above that's the easy case, and the length pre-decoders already have to know what mode they're in, so fortunately there's no downside to using it for padding. Unlike rep (which could become part of some future opcode), 67h is extremely likely to be safely ignored for instructions where it can apply to some form of the same opcode, even if there isn't actually a memory operand for this one.
Sandybridge-family doesn't ever have any false LCP stalls, removing both the 16/32-bit mode address-size (67h) and the all-modes 66 F7 cases (which needs to look at ModRM to disambiguate instructions like neg di or mul di from test di, imm16.)
SnB-family also removes some 66h true-LCP stalls, e.g. from mov-immediate like mov word ptr [rdi], 0 which is actually useful.
Footnote 3: forward compat of using 67h for padding
When 67h applies to the opcode in general (i.e. it can use a memory operand), it's very unlikely that it will mean something else for the same opcode with a modrm that just happens to encode reg,reg operands. So this is safe for What methods can be used to efficiently extend instruction length on modern x86?.
In fact, "relaxing" a 6-byte call [RIP+rel32] to a 5-byte call rel32 is done by GNU binutils by padding the call rel32 with a 67h address-size prefix, even though that's never meaningful for E8 call rel32. (This happens when linking code compiled with -fno-plt, which uses call [RIP + foo@gotpcrel] for any foo that's not found in the current compilation unit and doesn't have "hidden" visibility.)
But that's not a good precedent: at this point it's too widespread for CPU vendors to want to break that specific prefix+opcode combo (like for What does `rep ret` mean?), but some homebrewed thing in your program like 67h cdq would not get the same treatment from vendors.
edited/condensed from Agner's microarch PDF, these cases can LCP-stall, taking an extra 2 to 3 cycles in pre-decode (if they miss in the uop cache).
imm16 that would be imm32 without a 66h. (Except mov-immediate).
mov and test don't have imm8 forms for wider operand-size so prefer test al, 1, or imm32 if necessary. Or sometimes even test ah, imm8 if you want to test bits in the top half of AX, although beware of 1 cycle of extra latency for reading AH after writing the full reg on HSW and later. GCC uses this trick but should maybe start being careful with it, perhaps sometimes using bt reg, imm8 when feeding a setcc or cmovcc (which can't macro-fuse with test like JCC can).67h with movabs moffs (A0/A1/A2/A3 opcodes in 64-bit mode, and probably also in 16 or 32-bit mode). Confirmed by my testing with perf counters for ild_stall.lcp on Skylake when LLVM was deciding whether to optimize mov al, [0x123456] to use 67 A0 4-byte-address or a normal opcode + modrm + sib + disp32 (to get absolute instead of rip-relative). That refers to an old version of Agner's guide; he updated soon after I sent him my test results.div cx or whatever, regardless of alignment.Or to summarize another way:
SnB-family has no false LCP stalls.
SnB-family has LCP stalls on every 66h and 67h true LCP except for:
mov r/m16, imm16 and the mov r16, imm16 no-modrm version.67h address size interaction with ModRM (in 16/32-bit modes).Length-changing REX doesn't stall (on any CPU).
(This part ignores the false LCP stalls that some CPUs have in some non-length-changing cases which turn out not to matter here, but perhaps that's why you were worried about 67h for mov reg,reg.)
In your case, the rest of the instruction bytes, starting after the 67, decode as a 3-byte instruction whether the current address-size is 32 or 64. Same even with addressing modes like mov eax, [e/rsi + 1024] (reg+disp32) or addr32 mov edx, [RIP + rel32].
In 16 and 32-bit modes, 67h switches between 16 and 32-bit address size. [x + disp32] vs. [x + disp16] are different lengths after the ModRM byte, but also non-16-bit address-size can signal a SIB byte depending on the R/M field. But in 64-bit mode, 32 and 64-bit address-size both use [x + disp32], and the same ModRM->SIB or not encoding.
There is only one case where a 67h address-size prefix is length-changing in 64-bit mode: movabs load/store with 8-byte vs. 4-byte absolute addresses, and yes it does LCP-stall Intel CPUs. (I posted test results on https://bugs.llvm.org/show_bug.cgi?id=34733#c3)
For example, addr32 movabs [0x123456], al
.intel_syntax noprefix
addr32 mov [0x123456], cl # non-AL to make movabs impossible
mov [0x123456], al # GAS picks normal absolute [disp32]
addr32 mov [0x123456], al # GAS picks A2 movabs since addr32 makes that the shortest choice, same as NASM does.
movabs [0x123456], al # 64-bit absolute address
Note that GAS (fortunately) doesn't choose to use an addr32 prefix on its own, even with as -Os (gcc -Wa,-Os).
$ gcc -c foo.s
$ objdump -drwC -Mintel foo.o
...
0: 67 88 0c 25 56 34 12 00 mov BYTE PTR ds:0x123456,cl
8: 88 04 25 56 34 12 00 mov BYTE PTR ds:0x123456,al # same encoding after the 67
f: 67 a2 56 34 12 00 addr32 mov ds:0x123456,al
15: a2 56 34 12 00 00 00 00 00 movabs ds:0x123456,al # different length for same opcode
As you can see from the last 2 instructions, using the a2 mov moffs, al opcode, with a 67 the rest of the instruction is a different length for the same opcode.
This does LCP-stall on Skylake, so it's only fast when running from the uop cache.
Of course the more common source of LCP stalls is with the 66 prefix and an imm16 (instead of imm32). Like add ax, 1234, as in this random test where I wanted to see if jumping over the LCP-stalling instruction could avoid the problem: Label in %rep section in NASM. But not cases like add ax, 12 which will use add r/m16, imm8 (which is the same length after the 66 prefix as add r/m32, imm8).
Also, Sandybridge-family reportedly avoid LCP stalls for mov-immediate with 16-bit immediate.
Related:
Another example of working around add r/m16, imm16: add 1 byte immediate value to a 2 bytes memory location
x86 assembly 16 bit vs 8 bit immediate operand encoding - choose add r/m16, imm8 instead of the also-3-byte add ax, imm16 form.
Sign or Zero Extension of address in 64bit mode for MOV moffs32? - how address-size interacts with the moffs forms of movabs. (The kind that can LCP-stall)
What methods can be used to efficiently extend instruction length on modern x86? - the general case of what you're doing.
Usually don't try to save space with addr32 mov [0x123456], al, except maybe when it's a choice between saving 1 byte or using 15 bytes of padding including actual NOPs inside a loop. (more tuning advice below)
One LCP stall usually won't be a disaster with a uop cache, especially if length-decoding probably isn't a front-end bottleneck here (although it often can be if the front-end is a bottleneck at all). Hard to test a single instance in one function by micro-benchmarking, though; only a real full-app benchmark will accurately reflect when the code can run from the uop cache (what Intel perf counters call the DSB), bypassing legacy decode (MITE).
There are queues between stages in modern CPUs that can at least partly absorb stalls https://www.realworldtech.com/haswell-cpu/2/ (moreso than in PPro/PIII), and SnB-family has shorter LCP-stalls than Core2/Nehalem. (But other reasons for pre-decode slowness already dips into their capacity, and after an I-cache miss they may all be empty.)
When prefixes aren't length-changing, the pre-decode pipeline stage that finds instruction boundaries (before steering chunks of bytes to actual complex/simple decoders or doing actual decoding) will find the correct instruction-length / end by skipping all prefixes and then looking at just the opcode (and modrm if applicable).
This pre-decode length-finding is where LCP stalls happen, so fun fact: even Core 2's pre-decode loop buffer can hide LCP stalls in subsequent iterations because it locks down up to 64 bytes / 18 insns of x86 machine code after finding instruction boundaries, using the decode queue (pre-decode output) as a buffer.
In later CPUs, the LSD and uop cache are post decode, so unless something defeats the uop cache (like the pesky JCC-erratum mitigation or simply having too many uops for the uop cache in a 32-byte aligned block of x86 machine code), loops only pay the LCP-stall cost on the first iteration, if they weren't already hot.
I'd say generally work around LCP stalls if you can do so cheaply, especially for code that usually runs "cold". Or if you can just use 32-bit operand-size and avoid partial-register shenanigans, costing usually only a byte of code-size and no extra instructions or uops. Or if you'd have multiple LCP stalls in a row, e.g. from naively using 16-bit immediates, that would be too many bubbles for buffers to hide so you'd have a real problem and it's worth spending extra instructions. (e.g. mov eax, imm32 / add [mem], ax, or movzx load / add r32,imm32 / store, or whatever.)
(This is separate from aligning the start of a fetch block at a branch target, which is also sometimes unnecessary given the uop cache.)
Wikichip's section on Skylake pre-decode is incorrectly implies that a partial instruction left at the end of a block has to pre-decode on its own, rather than along with the next 16-byte group that contains the end of the instruction. It seems to be paraphrased from Agner Fog's text, with some changes and additions that make it wrong:
[from wikichip...] As with previous microarchitectures, the pre-decoder has a throughput of 6 macro-ops per cycle or until all 16 bytes are consumed, whichever happens first. Note that the predecoder will not load a new 16-byte block until the previous block has been fully exhausted. For example, suppose a new chunk was loaded, resulting in 7 instructions. In the first cycle, 6 instructions will be processed and a whole second cycle will be wasted for that last instruction. This will produce the much lower throughput of 3.5 instructions per cycle which is considerably less than optimal.
[this part is paraphrased from Agner Fog's Core2/Nehalem section, with the word "fully" having been added"]
Likewise, if the 16-byte block resulted in just 4 instructions with 1 byte of the 5th instruction received, the first 4 instructions will be processed in the first cycle and a second cycle will be required for the last instruction. This will produce an average throughput of 2.5 instructions per cycle. [nothing like this appears in the current version of Agner's guide, IDK where this misinformation came from. Perhaps made up based on a misunderstanding of what Agner said, but without testing.]
Fortunately no. The rest of the instruction is in the next fetch block, so reality makes a lot more sense: the leftover bytes are prepended to the next 16-byte block.
(Starting a new 16-byte pre-decode block starting with this instruction would also have been plausible, but my testing rules that out: 2.82 IPC with a repeating 5,6,6 byte = 17-byte pattern. If it only ever looked at 16 bytes and left the partial 5 or 6-byte instruction to be the start of the next block, that would give us 2 IPC.)
A repeating pattern of 3x 5 byte instructions unrolled many times (a NASM %rep 2500 or GAS .rept 2500 block, so 7.5k instructions in ~36kiB) runs at 3.19 IPC, pre-decoding and decoding at ~16 bytes per cycle. (16 bytes/cycle) / (5 bytes/insn) = 3.2 instructions per cycle theoretical.
(If wikichip was right, it would predict close to 2 IPC in a 3-1 pattern, which is of course unreasonably low and would be not be an acceptable design for Intel for long runs of long or medium-length when running from legacy decode. 2 IPC is so much narrower than the 4-wide pipeline that it would not be ok even for legacy decode. Intel learned from P4 that running at least decently well from legacy decode is important, even when your CPU caches decoded uops. That's why SnB's uop cache can be so small, only ~1.5k uops. A lot smaller than P4's trace cache, but P4's problem was trying to replace L1i with a trace cache, and having weak decoders. (Also the fact it was a trace cache, so it cached the same code multiple times.))
These perf differences are large enough that you can verify it on your Mac, using a plenty-large repeat count so you don't need perf counters to verify uop-cache misses. (Remember that L1i is inclusive of uop cache, so loops that don't fit in L1i will also evict themselves from uop cache.) Anyway, just measuring total time and knowing the approximate max-turbo that you'll hit is sufficient for a sanity check like this.
Getting better than the theoretical-max that wikichip predicts, even after startup overhead and conservative frequency estimates, will completely rule out that behaviour even on a machine where you don't have perf counters.
$ nasm -felf64 && ld # 3x 5 bytes, repeated 2.5k times
$ taskset -c 3 perf stat --all-user -etask-clock,context-switches,cpu-migrations,page-faults,cycles,instructions,uops_issued.any,uops_retired.retire_slots,uops_executed.thread,idq.dsb_uops -r2 ./testloop
Performance counter stats for './testloop' (2 runs):
604.16 msec task-clock # 1.000 CPUs utilized ( +- 0.02% )
0 context-switches # 0.000 K/sec
0 cpu-migrations # 0.000 K/sec
1 page-faults # 0.002 K/sec
2,354,699,144 cycles # 3.897 GHz ( +- 0.02% )
7,502,000,195 instructions # 3.19 insn per cycle ( +- 0.00% )
7,506,746,328 uops_issued.any # 12425.167 M/sec ( +- 0.00% )
7,506,686,463 uops_retired.retire_slots # 12425.068 M/sec ( +- 0.00% )
7,506,726,076 uops_executed.thread # 12425.134 M/sec ( +- 0.00% )
0 idq.dsb_uops # 0.000 K/sec
0.6044392 +- 0.0000998 seconds time elapsed ( +- 0.02% )
(and from another run):
7,501,076,096 idq.mite_uops # 12402.209 M/sec ( +- 0.00% )
No clue why idq.mite_uops:u is not equal to issued or retired. There's nothing to un-laminate, and no stack-sync uops should be necessary, so IDK where the extra issued+retired uops could be coming from. The excess is consistent across runs, and proportional to the %rep count I think.
With other pattern like 5-5-6 (16 bytes) and 5-6-6 (17 bytes), I get similar results.
I do sometimes measure a slight difference when the 16-byte groups are misaligned relative to an absolute 16-byte boundary or not (put a nop at the top of the loop). But that seems to only happen with larger repeat counts. %rep 2500 for 39kiB total size, I still get 2.99 IPC (just under one 16-byte group per cycle), with 0 DSB uops, regardless of aligned vs. misaligned.
I still get 2.99IPC at %rep 5000, but I see a diff at %rep 10000: 2.95 IPC misaligned vs. 2.99 IPC aligned. That largest %rep count is ~156kiB and still fits in the 256k L2 cache so IDK why anything would be different from half that size. (They're much larger than 32k Li1). I think earlier I was seeing a different at 5k, but I can't repro it now. Maybe that was with 17-byte groups.
The actual loop runs 1000000 times in a static executable under _start, with a raw syscall to _exit, so perf counters (and time) for the whole process is basically just the loop. (especially with perf --all-user to only count user-space.)
; complete Linux program
default rel
%use smartalign
alignmode p6, 64
global _start
_start:
mov ebp, 1000000
align 64
.loop:
%ifdef MISALIGN
nop
%endif
%rep 2500
mov eax, 12345 ; 5 bytes.
mov ecx, 123456 ; 5 bytes. Use r8d for 6 bytes
mov edx, 1234567 ; 5 bytes. Use r9d for 6 bytes
%endrep
dec ebp
jnz .loop
.end:
xor edi,edi
mov eax,231 ; __NR_exit_group from /usr/include/asm/unistd_64.h
syscall ; sys_exit_group(0)